Table 1 Role of MSCs in muscle regeneration across various conditions and the current state of techniques/therapies

SM injury

MSCs proliferate and differentiate into new myofibers, promoting muscle tissue repair

Stem cell therapy, gene therapy, tissue engineering

[43]

Exercise-induced muscle damage

MSCs aid in repairing exercise-induced muscle damage, leading to muscle growth and adaptation

Activation of endogenous MSCs or transplantation of exogenous MSCs

[44, 45]

Aging

The reduction in MSCs number and regenerative ability partly contributes to age-related decline in muscle function

Exercise intervention, nutritional intervention, stem cell therapy

[46, 47]

Tissue engineering

MSCs differentiate into myoblasts and fuse to form new muscle fibers, enabling the repair of damaged or lost muscle tissue

Bioprinting, scaffold-based engineering, microfluidic devices

[48, 49]

Neuromuscular diseases

MSCs aid in regenerating muscle fibers in different neuromuscular conditions, including ALS and spinal muscular atrophy

Transplantation of MSCs directly into affected muscles or systemic delivery of MSCs

[50, 51]

Cancer cachexia

MSCs experience reduced regenerative capacity and contribute to muscle wasting

Nutritional intervention, exercise intervention, stem cell therapy, co-culture of MSCs with supportive cells

[52]

Diabetic myopathy

MSCs may play a role in the development of diabetic myopathy and are potential therapeutic targets for muscle regeneration in diabetes

Exercise intervention, nutritional intervention, stem cell therapy, co-culture of MSCs with supportive cells

[53, 54]

Congenital myopathies

MSCs contribute to muscle regeneration in various congenital myopathies, such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy and congenital fiber-type disproportion

Cell therapy, exon skipping therapy, injection of MSCs directly into affected muscles, or systemic delivery of MSCs

[55, 56]

Regenerative medicine

MSCs are used as a potential therapy for muscle regeneration in various conditions

MSC-based tissue engineering, transplantation of exogenous MSCs

[57, 58]