Classification | PRR | Ligands | Virus/host* | Experimental models | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
TLR | TLR2 | ? | – | Computational method with the dataset of BAL†from COVID-19 patients | [55] |
E proteina | Virus | Mouse BMDM, Human PBMC | [56] | ||
S proteina | Virus | Mouse BMDM | [57] | ||
TLR3 | ? | – | Genetic variant analysis in patients with life-threatening COVID-19b | [21] | |
? | – | Calu-3/MRC-5 multicellular spheroids | [58] | ||
TLR4 | S proteina | Virus | Mouse peritoneal macrophages, mouse BMDM | [59] | |
S protein | Virus | Mouse peritoneal exudate macrophages, mouse RAW264.7 cells, human THP-1 cells | [60] | ||
S protein | Virus | In silico study | [61] | ||
TLR7 | ? | – | Genetic variant analysis in young men with severe COVID-19 | [19] | |
? | – | Genetic variant analysis in patients with life-threatening COVID-19b | [20] | ||
? | – | Calu-3/MRC-5 multicellular spheroids | [58] | ||
RLR | MDA5 | ? | – | Calu-3 cells | |
(–)RNA | Virus | Calu-3 cells, RIG-I KO A549 cells | [67] | ||
RIG-I | ? | – | Calu-3 cellsc | [66] | |
RNA of SARS-CoV-2-infected Vero E6 cells | – | HEK293 cells | [68] | ||
(+)gRNA | Virus | A549 cells, human primary bronchial, and alveolar epithelial cells (as a direct restraining factor) | [67] | ||
CLR | DC-SIGN L-SIGN LSECtin ASGR1 CLEC10A | S protein | Virus | Human PBMC-derived myeloid cells | [69] |
NLR | NLRP3 | ? | – | Human monocytes derived from COVID-19 patients | |
? | – | Human monocytes in lung tissues of COVID-19 patients | [70] | ||
? | – | Human PBMC derived from COVID-19 patients | [70] | ||
? | – | Human monocytes | |||
GU-rich RNA | Virus | Human macrophages | [72] | ||
ORF3a | Virus | HEK293T cells, A549 cells | [73] | ||
N proteind | Virus | Mouse BMDM, THP-1 cells, HEK293T cells, A549 cells | [74] | ||
S protein | Virus | Human macrophages derived from COVID-19 patients | [75] | ||
NOD1 | ? | – | Calu-3 cells | [62] | |
ALR | AIM2 | Mitochondrial DNA? | Host | Human monocytes of COVID-19 patients | [31] |
Other | cGAS | ? | – | ACE2-expressing A549 cellse | [76] |
DNA? | Host | ACE2-expressing A549 cells, HEK293T cells, HeLa cellse | [77] | ||
Mitochondrial DNA | Host | Human endothelial cells in lung-on-chip model | [38] | ||
Damaged DNA | Host | Human macrophages in skin lesions and lung tissues of COVID-19 patients | [38] |