Fig. 3

MSC-EVs can produce different kinds of miRNAs causing M2 macrophage polarisation that in turn results in increased cytokine IL-10, VEGF and TGF-β and decreased NF-κB and IL-8 expression. Furthermore, the EVs are internalised into endothelial cells, monocytes, neutrophils and macrophages. As a result of which there is less pro-inflammatory cytokine production, improved phagocytic activity and increased tissue regeneration